Awareness of action discrepancy and action authorship in schizophrenia Free Essays

Introduction This study builds on previous research which has investigated the awareness of agency in schizophrenia patients with and without delusions of control. Individuals suffering from schizophrenia can show delusions which cause them to believe that their thoughts and actions are in control of external forces. In such individuals, previous research has shown that there is increased and abnormal activity in certain brain areas when compared to healthy subjects. We will write a custom essay sample on Awareness of action discrepancy and action authorship in schizophrenia or any similar topic only for you Order Now This fMRI study therefore investigates how these brain areas respond in two different tasks: 1) awareness of action discrepancy, and 2) awareness of action authorship. An experimental paradigm used by Farrer et al (2007) will be replicated, using a manual peg removal task. It is expected that in healthy individuals and schizophrenics without delusions of control will show normal activity in the specified brain areas in both of the studies. However, schizophrenics with delusions of control will show abnormally high activity in both studies, demonstrating an abnormality in brain function. Scientific Summary (max 200 words): Currently, there is a wealth of research investigating action authorship in healthy individuals and schizophrenics. These have shown that the rIPL, specifically the Ag, and the TPJ in healthy subjects and schizophrenics without delusions of control show increased BOLD signals to the experience of agency (self or other). However, it has been found that schizophrenics with delusions of control exhibit hyperactivity in these areas, and are more likely to misattribute an action to themselves or an external force. An experimental paradigm used by Farrer et al (2007) will be replicated, using a manual peg removal task – as research is somewhat ambiguous when it comes to brain activity relating to awareness of action discrepancy and awareness of action authorship, the two will be separated into two studies. It is expected that in both studies healthy subjects and schizophrenics without delusions of control will show normal brain function – rIPL activity to detecting a delay in the first study, and TPJ activity to the experience of agency uncertainty. However, the schizophrenics with delusions of control in study 1, will show hyperactivity of the rIPL and TPJ BOLD signals due to their perceived ambiguity of action agency, and study 2, will show similar results as they misattribute the action to external forces more so than the other subjects. 1. Background of the Project: Distinguishing oneself from others is something we all take for granted and give the self-other distinction and the source of our perceptions very little explicit thought in everyday life. It seems that the self-other distinction is automatic and operates via non-conscious cognitive processes and aids us in daily social interactions and situations (van den Bos Jeannerod, 2002). However, this ability is not clear-cut and definite in all individuals as it can be impaired to varying extents in a range of pathological and psychiatric disorders, i.e. schizophrenia. Schizophrenia is characterised by irregular beliefs, behaviours and experiences. Additionally, patients can typically exhibit symptoms which indicate abnormalities in self-attributing their own actions and thoughts: symptoms such as acoustic or verbal hallucinations and delusions of alien control can all relate to a sense of losing authorship/agency and giving the feeling of being controlled by external forces (Mellor, 1970; Spence et al, 1997). Schneider (1995) classed these as the first-rank symptoms and these were explained by the individuals losing their normal capability to monitor their self-generated intentions and actions (Feinberg, 1978; Frith, 1992). Before considering where these deficits lie in schizophrenia individuals, it is important to establish how the brain areas of healthy subjects function in response to agency tasks. Functional neuroimaging has allowed the neural correlates of motor control to be examined in great detail. In healthy subjects, awareness of action has been associated with the right inferior parietal lobule (rIPL) (Frith et al, 2000; Sirgu et al, 2004). Additionally, increased activity has been reported in specifically the right angular gyrus (Ag) of the rIPL when healthy subjects show an awareness that they are not in control of a certain motor action (Farrer Frith, 2002; Farrer et al, 2007). Further evidence has found that the Ag activity is correlated with the degree of discrepancy between the intended consequence of the action and the actual consequence of the action (Farrer et al, 2003). Other neuroimaging research has demonstrated that when healthy subjects do not feel authorship of an action or when they sensed a discrepancy between predicted and actual movements, activity in the temporo-parietal junction (TPJ) was increased (Leube et al, 2003; David et al, 2007; Farrer et a l, 2008; Spengler et al, 2009). This suggests that the TPJ has a very important role in whether we feel a sense of authorship of an action or if there is a discrepancy present. The first model which accounts for the mechanisms underlying the sense of agency is the Predictive Forward Model of motor control (Wolpert et al, 1995; Frith et al, 2000; Haggard, 2005). This model states that when an action is performed, predictions are made about the sensory movement consequences; this is based on the motor efference copy (von Holst Mittelstaedt, 1950). Next, such predictions are compared with real sensory feedback signals which arise as a consequence of the movement and these contribute to a sense of agency if no error signals are arise. If the comparison fails, and error signals occur, then the action is experienced as other-generated, or as action failure which can be corrected without conscious awareness (Slachesky et al, 2001). Now, considering schizophrenia individuals, delusions of control can comprise the belief that one’s actions are being influenced by an external force/agent (e.g. an alien, spirit or machine) (Mellor, 1970). When patients with such delusions are compared to schizophrenics without delusions of control they show impaired motor performance (Mlakar et al,, 1994; Spence et al, 1997). Recently, neuroimaging studies have allowed motor control and any dysfunctions in the neural correlates to be investigated. Firstly, research has shown that like healthy subjects, schizophrenic patients show increased activity in the rIPL when looking at action authorship; however, a different pattern is seen. The spontaneous resting activity of the rIPL is significantly higher than that of healthy subjects (Spence et al, 1997; Whalley et al, 2004; Jeannerod, 2009; Jardri et al, 2011) and additionally, this activity is poorly modulated by a discrepancy between predicted movement and actual movement cons equences (Farrer et al, 2004). This would suggest that there is a deficit in the parietal mechanism which could be responsible for the impaired sense of agency found in schizophrenia. In relation to the TPJ, there have been anatomo-functional changes which have been reported in schizophrenia (Torrey, 2007; Wible et al, 2009), and sulcal displacements and volume reductions in this region were evidenced in patients who reported delusions of control (Maruff et al, 2005; Plaze et al, 2011). Previous studies have not been able to disambiguate between brain activity related to awareness of action discrepancy and awareness of action authorship in schizophrenic patients. Therefore, the present study is going to use a slight modification of Farrer et al (2007) experimental paradigm in order to clarify which brain areas are functioning or functioning abnormally in response to the task. It is unclear specifically which process recruits which aforementioned brain regions and this can be achieved by using an experimental design which breaks down the processes into two separate methods. Two fMRI studies will be undertaken and manipulations will include: 1) the awareness of one’s own action being consistent with the predicted action and 2) the experience of being the agent or not being the agent of an action (i.e. authorship/agency). Study 1 will include delays in visual feedback of actions to manipulate the relationship between predicted and actual sensory consequences of the action. Therefore, brain activity can be monitored to see when subjects are aware vs. unaware of these discrepancies with no bearing on authorship. Uncertainty of authorship will be introduced in study 2 to allow the observation of brain activity in response to manipulations of action authorship. 2. Questions to be answered: Will a difference be found in rIPL and TPJ activity of healthy subjects, schizophrenics with delusions of control and schizophrenics without delusions of control in study 1? Will a difference be found in rIPL and TPJ activity of healthy subjects, schizophrenics with delusions of control and schizophrenics without delusions of control in study 2? Will there a difference in brain activity between studies 1 and 2? 3. Plan of Investigation: 3.1. Subjects In accordance with medical research guidelines, after complete description of the study, written informed consent will be obtained from each participant. 12 schizophrenics with delusions of control (6 male, 6 female), and 12 schizophrenics without delusions of control (6 male, 6 female) will be recruited from London teaching hospitals, satisfying the DSM IV-R criteria for schizophrenia. Additionally, 12 healthy subjects (6 male, 6 female) will be used as controls, matched on age, sex and IQ. Each participant will be identified as right hand dominant. A quantitative assessment of the schizophrenia symptoms will be performed using the PANSS (Kay et al, 1987). Criteria for the schizophrenic patients with delusions of control are that they score 4 or 5 on the â€Å"delusions of control† item in the Scale for Assessment of Positive Symptoms (Andreasen, 1984). The criteria for the schizophrenics without delusions of control will be that they have never experienced such delusions. Exclusion criteria will include any history of substance abuse or dependency, as well as any history of serious head injury or any other neurological or psychiatric disorders. 3.2. Stimuli Procedure As stated before, the experimental paradigm is very similar to Farrer et al (2007). Study 1: A manual peg task will be performed with visual feedback delayed by 0, 50, 100, 150, 200, 300 or 300 ms. A board with 33 holes and 25 pegs will be used. For each experimental block the placement of the pegs will be different to avoid any recall of peg positioning. An infrared camera will film the grid and this image will be sent to a delay unit and be delayed for the required time. The feedback image will then be linked to the LCD projector so that the subjects are able to see the delayed action feedback on the rear projection screen at the head of the bore. Therefore there are 7 conditions: 1 with no delay, and 6 with varying delays. A block design will be used with 8 blocks (20s each); the subjects will have to remove the pegs from the board for the 20s duration – this will then be followed by a rest condition with no action required or stimuli present. Each run involved the 7 conditions in a counterbalanced order. After each block finishes, each subject will be asked to state whether they perceived delays in the visual feedback of their movements: the right hand thumb down for â€Å"no† and thumb up for â€Å"yes†. Study 2: The procedure and stimuli will be the same as study 1. However, the subjects will be required to perform index and middle finger alternating actions without pause whilst watching the feedback screen. The delays used will be 800 and 1000ms. Each run will consist of 120s of alternating finger movement, and 30s rest and will be repeated 5 times. The subjects will be told that they can either see their own or another’s movements after the delay, and this would occur randomly. However, in fact subjects will only be able to see their own movements delayed, causing them to switch from self to other. They also will be required to assert whether they think they see themselves or another individual carrying out the action. They will be required to press one of two buttons to show this. To prevent any other source of recognisable information that could give away the authorship of the movement, subjects will be required to wear a snug fitting glove to prevent any recognition cues . 3.3. Image Acquisition and Analysis Studies 1 and 2 used the same functional imaging acquisition procedure. A 1.5-Tesla MRI scanner with a SENSE head coil will be used. For each run an ultrafast echo planar gradient echo imaging (EPI) sequence sensitive to blood oxygenation level-dependent (BOLD) contrast will be used to obtain 25 slices per time repetition, (4.5mm thickness, 1mm gap, in plane resolution, 3.125 x 3.125mm). TR = 2500ms, TE = 35ms. A co-planar, T1-weighted, axial fast spin echo sequence will be used to acquire 25 slices (4.5mm slice thickness with 1mm gap), TE = Min full, TR = 650ms, ET = 2, field of view = 24cm. A whole brain T1-weighted structural image will also be acquired (0.94?0.94?1.2mm) (Farrer et al, 2007). A head restraint will also be used to reduce any head movement during the scan in order to reduce any motion artefact. 4. Details of Data Analysis: Both studies 1 and 2 will perform image analyses and statistical analyses using the SPM99 (http://fil.ion.ucl.ac.uk/spm/software/spm99). Functional scans will be realigned, spatially normalised and smoothed using a Gaussian kernel to remove any movement artefacts and to place the data from each subject into a common anatomical frame. The statistical analysis is similar to the analysis carried out by (Farrer et al, 2007). Study 1: Two statistical analyses of the fMRI data will be performed. Firstly, movement-related activity, a simple contrast between the experimental blocks and the rest blocks. Secondly, delay-detection activity, the subjects’ responses in the detection of the delay will allow the assessment of between trials where subjects did or did not perceived the delay (Farrer et al, 2007). Study 2: Two statistical comparisons will be performed. Firstly, movement-related activity, the experimental blocks across all conditions for each subject will be grouped and the main effect of task will be created. Secondly, perturbed agency, the subjects’ response to the visual feedback will allow differentiation between trials where the subject experienced self or other action authorship. (Farrer et al, 2007). For both studies, one-tailed t-tests will be used for each of the contrast images. The set of t-values obtained will constitute a statistical parametric map which will show significant areas of BOLD signals. 5. Expected Outcomes: The Expected fMRI Results: Study 1: Consistent with prior research, it is expected that the healthy subjects will show significant activation in the in the rIPL, specifically the Ag, when detecting a discrepancy (detection of delay) (Frith et al, 2000; Sirgu et al, 2004; Farrer Frith, 2002; Farrer et al, 2007). No TPJ activity is expected in the healthy subjects as study 1 is not meant to bring about the experience of agency uncertainty; this will be supported by previous research which shows the TPJ to have a role in determining if an action is not ours (Leube et al, 2003; David et al, 2007; Farrer et al, 2008; Spengler et al, 2009). Schizophrenics without delusions of control are predicted to show very similar brain activation to the healthy subjects; this can be justified because they have had no prior experience of delusions of control and shouldn’t have any problems with determining action authorship (Spence et al, 1997) – however, this is not entirely certain, and only a prediction. As for the schizophrenics with delusions of control, it is expected that brain activity will be abnormal; the delay detected by the patient could elicit hyperactivation in the rIPL, specifically the Ag, and the TPJ and give rise to misattribution of agency (Spence et al, 1997; Whalley et al, 2004; Jeannerod, 2009; Jardri et al, 2011). Unlike the healthy controls and schizophrenics without delusions of controls, it is predicted that they will be unable to attribute the movement to themselves after the delay. Study 2: It is expected that because of the ambiguity of the movement in terms of agency, healthy subjects and schizophrenics without delusions of control will show increased activity in the rIPL, but also in the TPJ due to the uncertainty of agency (Frith et al, 2000; Sirgu et al, 2004; Farrer Frith, 2002; Farrer et al, 2007; Leube et al, 2003; David et al, 2007; Farrer et al, 2008; Spengler et al, 2009). After being told that the action is ambiguous (i.e. self or other) it is predicted that the schizophrenics with delusions of control – similar to study 1 – will be more likely to misattribute the movement to another agent with a greater perturbation of their sense of agency compared to the other subjects. Additionally, the activity in the rIPL and TPJ is expected to show hyperactivation in comparison to the other subjects. (Spence et al, 1997; Whalley et al, 2004; Jeannerod, 2009; Jardri et al, 2011). Finally, it is expected that there will be a greater overlap between brain areas active in both studies for the schizophrenics with delusions of control compared to the other subjects. 6. Details of any difficulties that can be foreseen: Although the subjects will be paid for their participation in the study, locating both schizophrenics with and without delusions of control may prove to difficult as they must be situated near the fMRI site as it is very unlikely that they will wish to travel long distances due to time and other issues. The criteria provided will narrow down the potential sample further. When using fMRI, it is important to acknowledge that the BOLD signals are considered to be an indirect measure of brain activity, therefore potentially, all brain responses may not be recorded for each of the stimuli. However, fMRI is viewed as one of the most effective ways to investigate brain activity without invasive procedure in this paradigm. It will be made certain that all precautions are met, and imaging acquisition and analysis are meticulously carried out. Due to the nature of schizophrenia and the wide variety of symptoms shown, it is possible that during the scanning process, certain subjects might experience symptoms that are debilitating to the scanning process which are out of the control of the experimenter. Medical staff will be on standby in case any violent/aggressive symptoms occur. There is a small chance of such an incident happening, but careful preparation can minimise the risk. 7. Future purpose and Theoretical Implications: If the results are as expected, this will have significant implications for several research areas. Firstly, it will add to the abundance of literature on the involvement of the rIPL and TPJ in response to action discrepancy and authorship in healthy individuals (e.g. (Frith et al, 2000; Sirgu et al, 2004; Farrer Frith, 2002; Farrer et al, 2007; Leube et al, 2003; David et al, 2007; Farrer et al, 2008; Spengler et al, 2009). Furthermore, it will demonstrate that symptoms vary massively across schizophrenia patients – there are deficits in the functioning of neural correlates (i.e. the rIPL and TPJ) between those with and without delusions of control, and will add to the relevant literature (e.g. (Spence et al, 1997; Whalley et al, 2004; Jeannerod, 2009; Jardri et al, 2011). Future research could delve into the severity of the symptoms of both the schizophrenics with and without delusions of control, and investigate whether it has an effect on subsequent brain activity. If a significant correlation is found it could be used as a â€Å"state-marker† of schizophrenia. As Jardri et al (2011) suggested such an increase in activity of the rIPL and TPJ in those with delusions could demonstrate a neuro-physiological signature in those suffering from the disease. Additionally, it gives further evidence that the deficient parietal mechanism is responsible for the impaired sense of agency demonstrated in schizophrenics with delusions of control. Therefore, as they have problems linking their intentions to their actions, it suggests that for future research the disconnection should not be looked for at the sensorimotor level, but rather, like this experiment, it should be looked for within the cortical network which is known to be responsible for the representations of motor function. References: David, N., Cohen, M., Newen, A., Bewernick, B., Shah, N., Fink, G., Vogeley, K. (2007). The extrastriate coretex distinguishes between the consequences of one’s own and others’ behaviour. Neuroimage, 26, 1004-1014. Farrer, C., Frith, C. (2002). 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A cognitive neuroscience view of schizophrenic symptoms: abnormal activation of a system for scoail perception and communication. Brain Imaging Behav, 3, 85-110. Wolpert, D., Ghahramani, Z., Jordan, M. (1995). An internal model for sensorimotor integration. Science, 269, 1880-1882. How to cite Awareness of action discrepancy and action authorship in schizophrenia, Essay examples

Marvin Hugley Jr. (3303 words) Essay Example For Students

Marvin Hugley Jr. (3303 words) Essay Marvin Hugley Jr. Eric NelsonCinema 1075/8/17LA Confidential and Film NoirOne of the most influential film movements in the 1940s was a genre that is known today as film noir. Film noir was a recognizable style of filmmaking, which was created in response to the rising cost of typical Hollywood movies (Buss 67). Film noir movies were often low budget films; they used on location shoots, small casts, and black and white film. The use of black and white film stock not only lowered production costs, but also displayed a out of place disposition that the conventions of film noir played upon. It is these conventions: themes, characters, lighting, sound, and composition, which are seen in the movie LA Confidential (Curtis Hanson, 1997). This paper discusses the techniques used in LA Confidential that link the movie with the typical cinematic conventions of the film noir style. Film noir often tackled subjects that dealt with common underlying themes: corruption, deceit, mystery, etc (Sobchack, 271). One of the most well-known and acclaimed pioneers in film noir is the movie The Maltese Falcon (John Huston, 1941). This film was based on a private investigator, Sam Spade, hired to investigate a case. The Maltese Falcon is now viewed as the typical film noir style movie because it contains traits and qualities of filmmaking that were adapted by film noir filmmakers. Film noir started during the mid 1940s and has been a popular film style ever since, yielding such contemporary movies like The Usual Suspects (Bryan Singer, 1995), Pulp Fiction (Quentin Tarantino, 1994), and Lock, Stock and Two Smoking Barrels (Guy Ritchie, 1998). These films have proved that film noir is not a method dedicated to past decades, but rather an innovative style of film that influences movies today. LA Confidential, like other contemporary film noirs utilize many stylistic qualities that the earlier film noir movies grasped. Often film noir movies were based upon corruption, usually in an urban type setting. Location in these movies would often consist of nighttime scenes in a busy city. Los Angles, the location of LA Confidential, is a typical setting for film noir movies due to its newer west coast image and the absence of rural traditions. The city was chosen largely because of its informality. People living in a city do not interact with each other as people of a small town might. Film noir played upon the idea of loneliness and solitude; two traits that are easily found in a big city (Monaco 246). Nighttime scenes were chosen because of the mystery that comes with darkness. Night projects a feeling to the viewer that he or she would not absorb in the daytime, very much the same way horror movies play themselves upon the night. Just like the basis of the big city, film noir acts upon the conventions of mystery and suspense: it is easier for the filmmaker to play with the viewers emotions if he or she is placed in a setting of uneasiness. The nighttime images in LA Confidential portray that anxiety and allow the mystery of the plot to expand. This use of nighttime and darker images lends the movie to take advantage of the stylistic low-key lighting. The movie begins with the narration of Sid Hudgens, editor for Hush Hush magazine, a sleazy tabloid concerned with getting a news story no matter what the consequences are. Typical of film noir, the story is adapted from a tabloid or pulp fiction novel. Sid Hudgens describes a town of beauty, filled with beaches, people, and economic potential. He tells how anyone can achieve the American dream in Los Angeles and how it truly is the greatest place to live. Sids voice suddenly turns sour as he reveals the truth about Los Angeles: an image is sold to the gullible; a pleasant image sent throughout the media. Unfortunately, its all a lie. The story continues with the addition of Edmund Exley to the Los Angeles Police Department. Exley is a skilled detective with all the book smarts a cop could possess. Usually, the protagonist in film noir would have an inner conflict between what he feels is right, and what is expected of him. In the movie, Exley must decide if giving up his chance for promotion is reason enough to fight for what he believes is right. The catch is that he immediately clashes with the rest of the force. It turns out that behind the honorable image of the LAPD, the force is a horribly corrupt authority revolving around money, power, and fame. Film noir commonly hid themes of corruption, deceit, and crookedness behind an idea of the American dream (Schatz 113). This idea is boldly seen in the movie American Beauty (Sam Mendes, 1999). One of the arguments in the movie suggests that behind every seemingly normal family is a household of embarrassment. Edmunds co-workers, Bud White, Jack Vincennes, and Dudley Smith are more interested in advancement than hones ty. When a case is solved in Los Angeles, there is a big to-do about the man behind the case. This publicity allows an officer to advance in the department, but also blurs the truth about the actual case findings. Edmund comes to a point in the movie where he decides to testify against his peers, throwing away any chance he has for betterment, but at the same time preserving his integrity. This was common in film noir: the idea that sacrifices must be made for absolute justice. Edmund believes that a cop should do everything by the book and honesty, where Bud White believes that as long as justice is served, justice is served. In the movie, Bud decides to shoot a suspect, and manipulate the scene as though it appears that the suspect shot at Bud first. Bud did this to prevent the suspect from getting off on some loophole in the justice system. As it turns out, the suspect was innocent of the crime. This is another film noir convention: the first suspect is usually not the one that t he protagonist is after. In addition, the LAPD distorts the truth not only in favor of serving justice but to make some extra money as well. Sid Hudgens pays cops like Jack Vincennes to create stories for Hush Hush magazine. Edmund Exley is the typical good cop. He was the son of a cop who unfortunately had the same reputation as the other cops; the lawless reputation that led to the police forces downfall. Edmund, we quickly see, is not a team player only because the team will not let him play. He quickly achieves respect from Dudley Smith, the captain; however, is never fully liked by him because he constantly gives up opportunities to advance. Edmund, unlike his co-worker and co-protagonist Bud White, believes that a cop is a respectable job, unneeded of extra attention: a well-done job is all the reward anyone could ever want. This idea that the hero often avoids the fame of success because is compromises his moral code is typical of film noir. It is also the idea that Bud White is taught to grasp throughout the movie. Bud White is the exact opposite of Exley: he believes that the right thing to do is to get justice before asking questions. Buds character is written so that he clashes with Exley, often times a quality in film noir and also cop films. Usually there embodies a duo whose other half is a total opposite. Using these two distinct personalities, film noir allows the two main characters to build upon one another, helping in the development of the story. It also allows each of the characters to understand their own particular flaws; that is they learn from the mistakes of the other one. Bud also interacts with Lynn Bracken, the femme fatale, and the two build upon each other as well. We can immediately see the corruption in the movie through a seemingly cut and dry case, when it is linked to a larger conspiracy. Like the Maltese Falcon, the movie involves a mysterious case with several twists throughout. Those twists are often established with an e ssential character known as the femme fatale. In The Maltese Falcon, as well as many other film noir movies, the femme fatale plays an important role in creating a character that builds in development throughout the movie. Lynn Bracken, a prostitute cut to look like Veronica Lake, plays the part of the femme fatale who aids in the development of Bud White. We see in the movie that Miss Bracken is a small town girl with real hopes, dreams, and ambitions. In some film noirs we are led to believe that the femme fatale is the destructive force which leads to the protagonists downfall (Maxfield). In LA Confidential, Curtis Hanson uses the femme fatal as an aid to help the protagonist mend his errors. This is the role Lynn plays aside Bud White, a cop with a weak spot for women, and a vengeance for those who beat them. In the LA Confidential screenplay, Brian Helgeland and Curtis Hanson do a remarkably well job of developing Miss Bracken into an unforgettable femme fatale. We are first in troduced to her as a person and not an object, despite the fact that her job makes her look like an object rather than a person. We are to immediately react to her personality, finding something in her that we understand with. She is an innocent person being driven by a more powerful force. In most film noir movies, the femme fatale is a stereotype. Lynn Bracken however, is not a stereotype in the way that most other film noir movies make the femme fatale: that is that the femme fatale uses her appeal to distract the protagonist. Nonetheless, we still see her as a stereotype: the hooker with the heart of gold. Film noir movies like to project an image that tends to hide or obstruct reality. As mentioned before, the image of an honorable police force mocks the actual corruption. It is then ironic, that the police force in LA Confidential is affiliated with the television show Badge of Honor. Hanson uses the show to project an image into our subconscious. In the television show, the m edias interpretation of the Los Angeles Police Department is emphasized. Equally ironic, the show Badge of Honor is just as corrupt as the police department is; cast members are blackmailed in favor of obtaining stories for Hush Hush magazine. Hanson also uses cinematic and film techniques to help project the typical conventions of film noir. Some of these techniques are used very much in the same way older style film noir movies were done in, while other techniques were created to adapt to the modern expectations of the viewer. In addition, some techniques used mostly because of modern Hollywood conventions are actually used to help the film noir develop. Looking at the film stock used in LA Confidential compared to film stocks used in other film noir movies, both film stocks display a concept that enhances the film noir style. The Maltese Falcon was filmed in a high speed, grainy, black and white film stock. Black and white film was originally used because it was cheaper to make a nd develop than color. Black and white also created a documentary feel to the movie, and projected a sense of realism. Quickly, the use of black and white added to the mood of film noir, making it a common practice. The graininess of the film stock helped in distorting the film into an unbalanced media. Using black and white film turned this genre into a no longer clean cut, pleasing film style. It was intended to keep the viewers on the edge of their seats, and the grainy film stock help in doing just that. However, the film audiences over the years have come to trust in color film stock, as it shortens the separation from the imaginary and the real. Hanson however, uses the color film to his advantage, creating a seedy mood. In Body Heat (Lawrence Kasdan, 1981) for example, Kasdan uses the color to his advantage much like Hanson does in LA Confidential. Both use color to heighten the impact of certain items on the viewer. In the night owl scene, Hanson takes advantage of the psych ological effects that blood portrays in the movie. With black and white film, blood looks like chocolate syrup, which does very little in grabbing the audience for commiseration. If we can see the deep redness of the blood, the killing seem more real, the case more important, and the need to discover the truth more significant. Another imperative aspect of filmmaking is the idea of lighting. Now it is important to know that in film noir the concept is lighting, not illuminating. Where illuminating is used to generate enough light to visually see the subjects, lighting provides the right amount of light to create a mood. It is also important to know that the typical way to light a scene is to use a three point lighting system. This method consists of three lights, each having their own purpose on lighting the scene. The key light is used to generate the majority of the light, or to illuminate the scene. However, if a subject is shot with one light, severe shadows are attached to the subject. To drown those shadows out, a fill light is used. This fill light is placed at the opposite corner, almost like a second corner of a triangle. The harsh shadows are then washed out, providing an even light at the subject. Then a third light, the back light, is placed behind the subject and off to the side to illuminate the back of the subject. This separates the subject from the background, creating a sense of depth in the two-dimensional screen space. LA Confidential uses unconventional lighting to portray disturbing images. Instead of three lights, only one or two lights are used. Or sometimes the low-key lighting is achieved by turning down the fill light, creeping up the shadows. This technique is used to break the film free from the conventions of the classical Hollywood style, which is what film noir did in the 1940s. For example, there are dimly or low-key shots of the villains to portray a negative image of that character. Likewise, a brightly-lit hero can project t he protagonist as more of a likeable character. In addition, by using no back light, the subject might tend to be lost into the background, adding to the sense of disorientation that is carried throughout the film. Other movies have made use of stylistic lighting as well. In The Godfather (Francis Ford Coppola, 1972), Coppola uses a single light above Marlon Brandos face to create a seriously disturbing image. With the light positioned directly above his face, pointed down, Brandos eye sockets are completely darkened. We can only see certain parts of his face, and what we do see is not very complimentary. Of course, the idea was not to portray Brando as a bright, happy person, but a dark, seedy villain instead. Composition also helps in the conventions of film noir as seen in LA Confidential. Canting the shot, or using a Dutch angle, tilts the scene to one side, creating another typical uneasy event. Usually, canting a shot symbolizes that something is about to or has already gone w rong. The Dutch angles also compliment the skewed lines that are formed in the mise-en-scene. Film noir tended to use the mise-en-scene to compliment what was going on in the story at the time. Film noir took these conventions from German expressionism, which was developed in order to portray an eerie reality (Schatz, 116). Hanson uses these type of shots during the shoot-out scenes between the police force and the enemy. Another, and probably most impressive use of canting is when the police force riots against the prisoners. We are shown overhead with an abnormal angle, with the camera jerking us around, creating as sense of confusion. Various shots are often used to send signals to the viewer in the film. Edmund Exley is often times shot from below. This creates an angle in which Edmunds physique is distorted, making him look more powerful and more of a hero. In Citizen Kane (Orson Welles, 1941), many shots are used from underneath the character, to make them appear more powerful and more heroic than a normal front view shot would have appeared (Schatz, 121). Likewise, shooting a subject from above creates a downward angle on the screen. This degrades the character, creating a shallow and horrible person. In LA Confidential, Hanson uses these angles for the criminals. A soundtrack is also imperative in portraying a theme in film noir. To start out, the musical score in a film reflects on the characters and the growth taking place at the time. In LA Confidential, when Edmund is dejected by hi colleagues, the soundtrack is a somber, almost slow type of music. When Bud White reveals himself to Lynn Bracken, the music is soft, adding to the sentimentality of the scene. When both Edmund and Bud solve the case at the end of the movie, the music is more uplifting. However, at no point in the movie does the music become too upbeat: even when the music is uplifting, it still has traits of depression, a quality in film noir music. In addition to the soundtrack, sound is used to help the film along. In a typical street scene, we might hear the sound of other people talking, cars passing by, or a radio playing. In LA Confidential, the absence of sound as well as the focus of sound is used. Instead of walking down a busy street with people talking, Edmund is walking down a dark, vacant street. We can also hear nothing but his footsteps, adding to the feeling of loneliness in the city that film noir tends to portray. Simple sounds such as gun shots, pencils tapping against a desk, or doors closing are heightened so that we are made more aware of them. Hanson wants us to feel the loudness of the gunshot, heightening its impact upon the target. In closing, LA Confidential makes use of cinematic and story-line techniques to link the movie with the conventions of typical film noir movies. Though LA Confidential, like many other contemporary film noir movies adapt certain practices to a modern audience, the filmmakers find ways to make those adaptations necessary in developing the film noir style. A basic message is portrayed by both generations of film noir: corruption is hidden behind a facade of honorable images. It is safe to say then, whether film noir comes in the form of LA Confidential, Pulp Fiction, Chinatown, or ever The Maltese Falcon, film noir is a genre accepted and loved by all generations, keeping it a method of filmmaking that will never fade. Loyalty To Family In The Short Story barn Burning EssayWork Cited Buss, Robin. French Film Noir. New York: Marion Boyans, 1988.IMDb.com, n.d. Web. 25 Apr. 2017Maxfield, James. The Fatal Woman: Source of Male Anxiety in American Film Noir, 1941-1991. London: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1996. Monaco, James. How to Read a Film. New York: Oxford University Press, 1981. Schatz, Thomas. Hollywood Genres: Formulas, Filmmaking and the Studio System. New York, New York: Random House, 1981. Sobchack, Thomas and Vivian C. Sobchack. An Introduction to Film. Boston: Scott, Foresman and Company, 1987.

Why the Conservative party lost popularity between 1900-1905 Essay Example

Why the Conservative party lost popularity between 1900-1905 Paper The conservative party lost an enormous amount of popularity between the years 1900-1905, this loss of popularity affected them in the 1906 election, during the run up to the election certain things the conservatives did had an impact on the end outcome. I will be explaining these factors which I think were mostly to blame. The Anglo-Boer War in 1899-1902, the Taff vale decision in 1901 and the causes of Chinese slavery all had an impact on the loss of popularity. The Anglo-Boer war arose from an unexpected dispute; this was between the Dutch and the British. Reasons why the conservative’s party lost popularity were due to the conservatives provoking the war without a valid reason, the war started out of nowhere. Britain had intentions of becoming a powerful nation, in order to satisfy this Chamberlain made unreasonable demands on Boer, meaning Boer had no choice and they were forced to retaliate. The war was moving at a slow pace and nothing much was happening. It was obvious that the war was deliberately done making the people of Britain very upset, ‘Pro-Boers’ were known as people against Britain at war. The Pro-Boers questioned the morality and realism of their country, and how it was so obvious that it was purposely done. People of Britain were deprived and unhappy, this hate affected the conservative’s popularity and the public could not trust them in power. Therefore meant that many people opposed the conservatives in starting the Anglo-Boer, this clearly shows that it affected the public back home and it was obvious that the party wasn’t going to have support. This is one of the reasons why they lost popularity between 1900 and 1905. We will write a custom essay sample on Why the Conservative party lost popularity between 1900-1905 specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Why the Conservative party lost popularity between 1900-1905 specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Why the Conservative party lost popularity between 1900-1905 specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer In 1900, the Taff Vale Railway Company in South Wales went on strike with their union. However this strike caused major conflict between the Union and the company. The company did not accept the strike movement so they decided to hire non-union workers to replace the union ones. By doing this they took the opportunity to take the union workers to court for illegal picketing. The railway company won this case and the workers were forced to come back to work empty handed. After the victory of this case, the company took the union workers to the courts once again, this time the case went to the House of Lords, and The House of Lords accepted the company’s decision and the workers were highly disappointed that the conservatives were not in favour of the working class. Considering the House of Lords are mostly made up of wealthy individuals and are supporters of the conservative party, it was fairly quick for the British public to realise how ignorant the conservative party were to the working class. This shocked many people and this was possibly one of the main reasons why the Tories lost popularity. They clearly had no moral empathy towards the working class and they didn’t receive any acceptance or recognition from the working class. Once of the minor issues that affected the Tories popularity was when, Arthur Balfour was accused of Chinese Slaves in Africa working on gold and diamond mines. This was seen as very disrespectful, due to them making others work for them, it certainly was selfish of Balfour to do that. These slaves would work in appalling conditions. The public to hear these disheartening stories gave them a fright. People of Britain couldn’t penetrate why Balfour was doing such corruption to Britain as a country, setting out negativity to neighbouring countries. Over all the public was unhappy over the inadequacy of the government which would have lost party support and popularity. Between 1900-1905, the conservatives party was in a very bad position, due to many of their decisions, one of the factors that led them to loss of popularity was the Anglo-Boer war, the public reaction to the was not supportive. The manner of Britain was highly selfish and pointless, because they gained nothing from that war, it was unnecessary and a waste of time. Britain was embarrassed, and this is one of the reasons they lost their popularity. Using Chinese slaves to work in the gold and diamond mines in Africa was also an immense disappointment for the public, as they saw it as moral wrong doings. This put Balfour in a shameless position; he was hated by many and lost major support, setting out a bad example to the people of Britain and neighbouring countries. Lastly the most important and effective way they lost the acceptance was the Taff Vale decision, just because it was the decline of the workers not allowing them to go on strike even though they had the full backing and financial aid of their union, it was very unfair and it demonstrated that the Tories were not supporters of the working class, they were for the upper class, this controversy was one of the main reasons why they lost fame, it outweighed the other factors because they separated the workers into a group of their own with no supporters certainly wasn’t fair to the workers. This was definitely the main reason why the conservative party lost recognition and supporters.

Definition and Examples of Linguistic Imperialism

Definition and Examples of Linguistic Imperialism Linguistic imperialism is the imposition of one language on speakers of other languages. It is also known as  linguistic nationalism, linguistic dominance, and language imperialism. In our time, the global expansion of English has often been cited as the primary example of linguistic imperialism. The term linguistic imperialism originated in the 1930s as part of a critique of Basic English and was reintroduced by linguist Robert Phillipson in his monograph Linguistic Imperialism (Oxford University Press, 1992). In that study, Phillipson offered this working definition of English linguistic imperialism: the dominance asserted and maintained by the establishment and continuous reconstitution of structural and cultural inequalities between English and other languages. Phillipson viewed linguistic imperialism as a subtype of linguicism. Examples and Observations of Linguistic Imperialism The study of linguistic imperialism can help to clarify whether the winning of political independence led to a linguistic liberation of Third World countries, and if not, why not. Are the former colonial languages a useful bond with the international community and necessary for state formation and national unity internally? Or are they a bridgehead for Western interests, permitting the continuation of a global system of marginalization and exploitation? What is the relationship between linguistic dependence (continued use of a European language in a former non-European colony) and economic dependence (the export of raw materials and import of technology and know-how)? (Phillipson, Robert. Linguistic Imperialism. Concise Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics, ed. by Margie Berns, Elsevier, 2010.) The rejection of the linguistic legitimacy of a language- any language used by any linguistic community- in short, amounts to little more than an example of the tyranny of the majority. Such a rejection reinforces the long tradition and history of linguistic imperialism in our society. The harm, though, is done not only to those whose languages we reject, but in fact to all of us, as we are made poorer by an unnecessary narrowing of our cultural and linguistic universe. (Reagan, Timothy. Language Matters: Reflections on Educational Linguistics. Information Age, 2009.) The fact that†¦no uniform British empire-wide language policy developed tends to disconfirm the hypothesis of linguistic imperialism as responsible for the spread of English†¦ The teaching of English by itself†¦, even where it did take place, is not sufficient grounds to identify the policy of the British empire with linguistic imperialism. (Brutt-Griffler, Janina. World English: A Study of Its Development. Multilingual Matters, 2002.) Linguistic Imperialism in Sociolinguistics There is by now a well-entrenched and very respectable branch of sociolinguistics, which is concerned with describing the world of globalization from the perspective of linguistic imperialism and linguicide (Phillipson 1992; Skutnabb-Kangas 2000), often based on particular ecological metaphors. These approaches†¦oddly assume that wherever a big and powerful language such as English appears in a foreign territory, small indigenous languages will die. There is, in this image of sociolinguistic space, place for just one language at a time. In general, there seems to be a serious problem with the ways in which space is imagined in such work. In addition, the actual sociolinguistic details of such processes are rarely spelled out- languages can be used in vernacular or in lingua franca varieties and so create different sociolinguistic conditions for mutual influencing. (Blommaert, Jan. The Sociolinguistics of Globalization. Cambridge University Press, 2010.) Colonialism and Linguistic Imperialism Anachronistic views of linguistic imperialism, which see as important only the power asymmetry between the former colonial nations and the nations of the third world, are hopelessly inadequate as an explanation of linguistic realities. They especially ignore the fact that first world countries with strong languages seem to be under just as much pressure to adopt English, and that some of the harshest attacks on English have come from countries [that] have no such colonial legacy. When dominant languages feel they are being dominated, something much bigger than a simplistic conception of power relations must be involved. (Crystal, David. English as a Global Language, 2nd ed. Cambridge University Press, 2003.)

Information Technology and Explosive Change Essay

Information Technology and Explosive Change - Essay Example Over the years, the level of innovation that technology has brought in the running of companies is unprecedented. Unlike before when the use of technology was confined to some few business set ups, today, information technology is in use in almost every company to bring about swift changes in the way companies go about their everyday activities – thus innovation. With technological innovations, information technology tools are today at the hem of affairs instead of manual application of human strength and knowledge. Such innovations have brought about speed in the delivery of work, thereby making companies have higher outputs. This means that efficiency generally go up with innovations because â€Å"many people have the tools to design new and innovative software to solve common problems and improve efficiency† (Global Guru, 2009). As information technology enhances and increases rate of production with innovative ways of getting production implemented, information technology again plays an important role of ensuring that products and services reach as many customers as possible. In times past, people living in one country barely had an idea about the kind of business that went on in other countries. Today, companies with just one branch in one country can boast of global customer base because of the power of information technology. Via the internet, companies of all kind – including individual freelancers make thousands of dollars a month because of the expanded reach of customer base that information technology offers them. To conclude, all companies who have not fully come to embrace the miracle of technology are advised to do so. Research among companies on how best they can utilize technology should not stop so that they will not lug behind in the new global trend. National Institute of Health (2011). Using Technology to Study Cellular and Molecular Biology. Retrieved October 31, 2011 from

Project Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Project Management - Essay Example s paper outlines the activities that can be involved when building a new house. This initiative has been underscored after realizing that it is wise to build a personal house than rely on rented accommodation. There are various factors such as financial issues that are involved in this work. It is also important for the individual involved to procure the place to build a house first before undertaking any construction work. The paper is divided into different categories that outline the different phases that can be involved in building a house. Business case: Financial and other considerations The business case involves building a house and the set budget for completing this project is ?25Â  000. However, a supplementary budget of ?5Â  000 has been set aside for this particular project. In order to complete this project there are different considerations that ought to be taken into account. There is need to procure raw materials that can be used in carrying out this project. There is also need to hire contractors who can execute this particular task. Planning assumptions and external constraints As is often the case when a project needs to be completed, proactive steps such as research, planning, communication, and review are often seen as basic tenets of project success (Josler & Burger, 2005). Basically, the term project is used to describe a set of activities that are linked and they are directed towards the attainment of a certain goal (Hellriegel 2001). A project can also be described as a onetime activity with a definite start and finish. As such, through utilization of project management methodology, a project can be completed within the expected time frame, on budget as well meeting the expected standards that satisfy all the stakeholders who may be involved. In this case, the baseline of the project is to carry out a feasibility study to establish if the project can be manageable. This is followed by outlining the cost and benefit analysis of the pro ject where the objectives are also set. When planning a project, the steps needed to obtain the goals of a project need to be outlined since this gives the team members direction to follow. A risk assessment ought to be carried out. In this case where a project involving the construction of a house is being undertaken, there are external constraints that can be encountered. As discussed in detail below, it can be noted that some of the external constraints may include the unprecedented changes in the price of raw materials used for building the house. Fluctuating labour costs can also affect the project hence the need to put contingency plans in place in order to deal with such a scenario. Options considered There are various external constraints that are likely to be encountered when carrying out a project. However, certain measures ought to be implemented in such a scenario. The last part of the paper outlines some of the contingent measures that can be implemented in case of chal lenges that can derail the progress being encountered. Benefits of building own house There are many

Standards of Quality Health Care

Standards of Quality Health Care Patricia Hall Long-term nursing home care has unique elements relative to the type of medical attention that is required and the publics perception of elder care. Modern nursing care facilities must adhere to the six standards of quality health maintenance: Safety: Circumventing injury to patients from the care that is supposed to make them healthier. This invokes the Hippocratic Oath, both old and modern versions (Medical definition of Hippocratic oath, 1996), to cause no harm. Effectiveness: Providing administrations based on logical information to all who could profit and abstaining from giving administrations to those not prone to profit (maintaining a strategic distance from underuse and abuse, individually). Avoid overmedication in elder care scenarios. Patient-centeredness: Providing care that is deferential of and receptive to individual patient inclinations, needs, and values and guaranteeing that patient qualities control every single clinical choice. Make a long-term care facility as close to a residents home life as possible, with the inclusion of personal amenities and family involvement a standard technique. Timeliness: Reducing wait times and sometimes damaging postponements for both those who receive and those who give care. A major complaint from patients is the wait time between being seen by a health care provider, and the red tape required to obtain treatment from specialists. Efficiency: Avoiding waste, including misuse of gear, supplies, thoughts, and vitality. A prime example of a need for teamwork in the organization. Equitability: Providing care that does not differ in quality in view of individual attributes, for example, sex, ethnicity, geographic area, and financial status (The Six Domains of Health Care Quality, 2016). Making sure that no patient experiences uneasiness during a health care visit due to cultural differences. Patient-centered care advances decision, reason and importance in day by day life. Individual-centered care implies that nursing home occupants are bolstered in accomplishing the level of physical, mental and psychosocial prosperity that is independently practicable. This objective respects the significance of keeping the individual at the focal point of the care management and basic leadership process. Care arrangements are living reports that are updated to mirror a persons evolving needs. In person-centered care, staff puts a premium on undivided attention and watching, so staff can adjust to every inhabitants changing needs paying little heed to subjective capacities (National nursing home quality improvement campaign, 2017). The staff treats the patient well regardless of that patients ability to appreciate the fact. A prime model of a patient-focused long-term care organization, the Eden Alternative is a global, non-benefit association committed to creating personal satisfaction for elders and their care assistants, wherever they may live. Through training, counsel, and effort, Eden Alternative offers individual coordinated standards and practices that bolster the novel needs of various living conditions, extending from the nursing home to the neighborhood street (AlternativeÂÂ ®, 2017). Family interaction is strongly encouraged. In a culture that ordinarily sees maturing as a time of decay, the Eden Alternative theory asserts that regardless of how old we are or what challenges we live with, life is about keeping on developing. Expanding on this new worldview, it certifies that care is not a restricted road, yet rather a community association. All guardians and care recipients are portrayed as care partners, each a dynamic member in a critical position of giving and getting. Together, care partner teams try to upgrade prosperity by killing the three diseases of forlornness, weakness, and boredom (AlternativeÂÂ ®, 2017). This mantra reflects my personal beliefs regarding the dynamics of a long-term care facility. If I had it my way, families would not dread placing a loved one in the care of a long-term health facility, but consider it a positive process. References: Alternative, T. E. (2017, January 27). The Eden AlternativeÂÂ ® improving the lives of the elders. Retrieved February 23, 2017, from http://www.edenalt.org/ Medical definition of Hippocratic oath. (1996). Retrieved February 23, 2017, from http://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=20909 National nursing home quality improvement campaign. (2017). Retrieved February 23, 2017, from https://www.nhqualitycampaign.org/goalDetail.aspx?g=pcc The Six Domains of Health Care Quality. (2016, March ). Retrieved February 23, 2017, from Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality, http://www.ahrq.gov/professionals/quality-patient-safety/talkingquality/create/sixdomains.html