Organisational Behavior Notes Essay Example for Free

Authoritative Behavior Notes Essay Definition * The investigation of human conduct, mentalities and execution inside authoritative setting to improve execution and contrasts. * Frameworks of speculations, techniques and standards from controls, for example, brain research, human science, political * The hierarchical Iceberg The investigation of authoritative conduct grasps, in this manner a comprehension of * The nature and reason for the association * The human component and conduct of individuals * Business methodology, hierarchical procedures and the execution of work * The procedure of the executives as a coordinating and co-ordinating movement * Social obligations and business morals * The outside condition of which the association is a piece of and * The requirement for association achievement and endurance. The Pyschological Contract * The PC is anything but a formal composed record that is alluded to yet a people association relationship where common desires and fulfillment of necessities are inferred. * Important to upgrade the degree of trust and collaboration. * Human money to be viewed as an obligation and an assets to be added to * Two perceptions in human conduct at work * Peter Principle * Parkinson’s law ../2 The pyschological contract: potential instances of individual and hierarchical desires Individual’s desires for the association * Provide sheltered and sterile working conditions. * Make each sensible exertion to give employer stability. * Attempt to give testing and fulfilling employments, and lessen distancing parts of work. * Adopy fair human asset the executives policicies and techniques. * Respect the job of worker's organization authorities and staff delegates. * Consult completely with staff and permit authentic support in choices which influence them. * Implement best practice in equivalent open door arrangements and precedures. * Reward all staff genuinely as per their commitment and execution. * Provide sensible open doors for self-awareness and vocation movement. * Treat individuals from staff mind regard. * Demonstrate an understanding and circumspect disposition towards individual issues of staff. Organisation’s Expectations of the Individual * Uphold the philosophy of the association and the corporate picture. * Work constantly in quest for authoritative destinations. * Adhere to the guidelines, policicies and systems of the association. * Respect the sensible authority of senior individuals from staff. * Not to exploit altruism appeared by the administration. * Be receptive to the administration impact. * Demonstrate steadfastness, regard secrecy and not deceive places of trust. * Maintain agreeable associations with work partners. * Not to manhandle authoritative offices, for example, email or web get to. * Observe sensible and adequate guidelines of dress and appearance. * Show regard and solidification to clients and providers. A pyshcological contract isn't just estimated in fiscal worth or in return of products or administrations, it is fundamentally the trade or sharing convictions and qualities, desires and fulfillments. Commonality is the base rule of the pyshcological agreement and accord or shared comprehension is the premise of commonality. In a perfect world in this way personal responsibility ought to be offset with regular enthusiasm for a success win plan. In the past this implicit agreement may have inferred that representatives could expect professional stability and sufficient awards from their manager in return for difficult work and dedication. Today’s pyshological agreement might be unique, in accordance with a changed workplace that incorporates factors, for example, expanded realism, innovative changes, and the board aproaches, for example, redistributing. The new pyschological agreement may spin more around an employer’s eagerness to help you in building up your aptitudes to request to keep up your attractiveness. The Peter Principle This is worried about the investigation of word related inadequacy and the investigation of pecking orders. In an order each representative will in general ascent to their degree of inadequacy. Representatives skill in their postion are advanced and fitness is each new position fits the bill for advancement to the following most noteworthy posotion until a place of ineptitude is reached. The rule depends on apparent inadequacy in all degrees of each progression political, legitimate, instructive and mechanical and courses in whcih workers move upwards through a pecking order and what befalls them after advancement. Diminish recommends tow principle implies by which an individual can impact their advancement rate. â€Å"Pull and push†. * Pull is an employee’s relationship †by blood, marriage and acqaintance †with an individual over the representative in the pecking order. * Push is some of the time showed by an anomalous enthusiasm for study, professional preparing and personal development. In little orders push may have a minor impact in quickening advancement; in bigger orders the impact is insignificant. Pull is in this manner, prone to be more compelling than Push. Parkinson’s Law A significant element of PL is that of the rising pyramid, that is â€Å"Work grows in order to occupy the time accessible for its finishing. There is nearly nothing, assuming any, connection between the amount of work to be done and the quantity of staff doing it. Basic this inclination are two proclamations; * An official needs to increase subordinates, not rivals * Officials make work for one another What is driving pioneers associations conduct? * The persistent significance that purchasers base on estimation of item and administration. * The various workforce is likewise a significant factor that drives authoritative conduct. * Consumers expect that association comprehends their necessities and produces top quality items, best case scenario value conceivable. These requests place pioneers in a tested circumstance by household and worldwide markets and rivalry. What are authoritative components? * Organizational components might be recognized as the authoritative condition, structure plan * Individual attributes, bunch conduct * Overall dynamic * The change forms embraced by the association The quick energy in any industry features the significance of the pioneer to adjust the HR to the hierarchical elements. Confining the Organizational conduct Hierarchical conduct might be concentrated under the accompanying primary givers * the earth * The person in the association * Group conduct and relational impact * Organizational procedure Authoritative condition is the outer and inside condition, the lawful and political imperatives, monetary, innovative changes and advancement all affect the choices that are taken by the administration. The individual is the establishment of the association execution. This ought to along these lines feature the significance of overseeing singular conduct at any degree of the association. There are 3 significant impacts that form the individual conduct. 1. Singular attributes 2. Singular inspiration 3. Prizes Gathering conduct Gatherings may frame either deliberately by administrative choices or structure out of individual endeavors. * Formal gatherings are bunches that were deliberately made by administrative choices * Informal gatherings are bunches that structure out of normal interests and kinships that may have a negative or constructive outcome and subsequently influence the association or individual execution. * Organizational procedures are the correspondence, the dynamic and the administration components that the association encourages as a major aspect of its way of life and which thus affect the general execution of the individual and aggregate conduct. Components of association process Correspondence process is the capacity of the board to get, transmit and follow up on data. The data coordinates the inside exercises with the outside interest and data likewise incorporates inside the exercises of the association. Dynamic procedure Choices by chiefs directly affect the workers prosperity, the organisation’s assets and the structure and usage of rules in an association. This ought to outline the significance of directors to convey, evaluate and investigate the criticism of choices and practices in the association. Administration process Pioneers in an association might be chiefs and non-directors. The administrator may not generally be the pioneer, yet initiative aptitudes contribute in accomplishing the set objectives. A few people accept that initiative styles ought to differ as indicated by the circumstance, other accept that one style of administration is successful much of the time. Significance of adequacy * Surviving in the earth * Organization ages-it structures, creates, develops and decays Significance of the Dimension of Time Quality, profitability, proficiency, fulfillment, adaptiveness and improvement are 6 general classes of viability models. Every one of the classifications have a period base, short run models †1 year, middle of the road 5 years, since quite a while ago run are those for which the uncertain future is appropriate. Character Individual distinction and work conduct * Individual contrasts directly affect conduct on the grounds that peole who see things diversely carry on in an unexpected way. * Individual contrasts shape organisaitional conduct and therefore, individual and organisaitional achievement. What is the ASA system? This is the fascination determination weakening to vocations and associations. * Prospective representatives are pulled in to vocations and associations. * Organizations choose workers based on the requirements of the association. * Attrition happens when people find that they don't have a place with the association. Examining singular contrasts at the work place is significant since not tending to contrasts among representatives may upset from accomplishing association and individual objectives. Un

Outline Example

Framework Example Framework †Coursework Example What Factors That Influence Exchange Rates and How? Theme: What Factors That Influence Exchange Rates and How Introduction The soundness of the economy is dictated by a country’s trading rates. Be that as it may, the trade rates are broadly affected by various variables. Shockingly, the rates change from nation to nation and for some random cash, over time.A. Postulation explanation Demand and flexibly, genuinely, are the key determiners of the conversion scale. A Great interest for merchandise will in general call for expanded estimation of the money. 2. BODYI) Factors That Influence Exchange RatesA. InflationChanges in advertise request cause an adjustment in money trade rates. A nation that encounters low expansion rates frequently empowers a gratefulness in the estimation of its money (Compare Remit, 2015). Where swelling is low, the costs of merchandise and enterprises increment at a more slow rate. For example, if the expansion is low in US, its fare will be serious subs equently increment sought after. For this situation, their imports will be less serious henceforth little interest on imports.B. Intrigue ratesChanges in loan costs impact cash esteem. Expanded rate influences country’s cash. Higher interests welcome higher rates to loan specialists consequently pulling in progressively remote capital (World’s Leading Macroeconomic Survey Firm, 2015). For example, in the event that US loan fees rise comparative with somewhere else, it will pull in more financial specialists to store in US banks. The estimation of the dollar will increment. C. SpeculationHere, examiners make the generous idea that there would raise of a cash in future (CompareRemit, 2015). Subsequently, there would be more interest presently to make more benefit. This expansion sought after will make the worth ascent. D. Government InterventionChina is one of the nations that underestimate its money to make Chinese items increasingly serious (Economics.Help, 2013). As a rule, they do this by getting US dollar resources henceforth builds the estimation of the Dollar to Yuan.ReferencesWorlds Leading Macroeconomic Survey Firm. (2011). Financial Factors Affecting Exchange Rates. Accord Economics. Recovered from http://humanrights-success.blogspot.com/2013/02/human-rights-infringement in-center east.htmlCompare Remit.(2015). 8 Key Factors that Affect Foreign Exchange Rates. Recovered from compareremit.com/cash move control/key-factors-influencing money trade rates/Economics.Help.(2013). Assisting with rearranging Economics. Recovered from economicshelp.org/macroeconomics/exchangerate/factors-affecting/

Senior Week

Senior Week Today begins a weeklong event at MIT called Senior Week. During Senior Week, we celebrate the graduating class and provide them with their final week of excitement at MIT. Events include Breakfast with the Professors, a trip to Six Flags New England, and Tech Night at the Pops. And today on this blog, I also begin a weeklong celebration of our seniors. Ill profile a senior each day, each an amazing person in their own right. The profiled students are not necessarily MITs best seniors, not are they representative of the class as a whole. They are not random, but rather students that I know who replied to my request for a profile =) As such, some non-representative things can be seen: two of the students will be working for Lehman Brothers, for example, while last year 8 students in the entire class accepted offers to work there (last years most popular employer, if youre curious, was the consulting firm McKinsey Company, with 30 hires). Also, finance jobs are over represented in this blogs group; grad school (of all kinds) is under represented; Sloan/Management majors are over represented; etc. In short, this is for you to get a sense of some seniors experiences plans, but not a representative sample. Ill post some statistics about our graduating class when I get a chance. Anyway, lets start with someone you know

Placoid Scales on Sharks and Rays

Placoid scales are the tiny, tough scales that cover the skin of elasmobranches, or cartilaginous fish—this includes sharks, rays, and other skates. While placoid scales are similar in some ways to the scales of bony fish, they are more like teeth covered with hard enamel. Unlike the scales of other fish, these do not grow after an organism has fully matured. Placoid scales are often called dermal denticles because they grow out of the dermis layer. The Function of Placoid Scales Placoid scales are packed tightly together, are supported by spines, and grow with their tips facing backward and laying flat. Placoid scales are rough to the touch and the structure they form is nearly impossible to penetrate. These scales function to protect a fish from predators and can even be used to injure or kill prey. The v-shape of a placoid scale reduces drag and increases turbulence as a fish moves through the water so that they may swim more quickly and quietly, all while expending less energy. Placoid scales form a matrix that is so dynamic and fluid that swimsuits have been designed to mimic their composition. The Structure of Placoid Scales The flat rectangular base plate of a placoid scale is embedded in a fishs skin. Like teeth, placoid scales have an inner core of pulp composed of connective tissues, blood vessels, and nerves. They are a part of the fish. The pulp cavity is nursed by a layer of odontoblast cells that secrete dentine. This hard, calcified material forms the next layer of scales, which fits tightly between the old layers. The dentine is coated in vitrodentine, which is an enamel-like substance that is produced by the ectoderm and is even harder than dentine. Once the scale erupts through the epidermis, it cannot be coated in any more enamel. Different species of cartilaginous fish support their scales with unique spines based on the shape and role of the fish. A species can be identified by the shape of its scales. Because rays are flat and sharks are more angular, the spines of their placoid scales are slightly different to allow both fish to swim quickly. The placoid scales of some sharks are shaped like a duck foot with spikes at the base. These spines are what make the skin so rough in texture that some cultures have been using it to sand and file for centuries. Shark Skin Leather In addition to being used as sandpaper, shark skin is often made into leather called shagreen. Shark scales are ground down so that the surface of the skin is still rough but smoothed enough that the leather can be handled without causing injury. Shark skin leather can take on dye colors or be left white. Years ago, sturdy shark skin leather was used to encase sword hilts and add grip. Other Types of Fish Scales The four main types of fish scales include placoid, ctenoid, cycloid, and ganoid scales. This list gives a brief description of the characteristics of all scale types other than placoid. Ctenoid: These scales are thin and round and rimmed with an outer edge of teeth. They are found on fish such as perch, sunfish, and other bony fish.Cycloid: These scales are large and rounded and show growth rings as they grow with the animal. They are smooth and can be found on fish such as salmon and carp.Ganoid: These scales are diamond-shaped and fit together like the pieces of a jigsaw puzzle rather than overlapping. Gars, bichirs, sturgeons, and reedfishes have these armor plates.

The Colonization of Africa 1880 to 1914 Essay example

The Scramble for Africa took place during the period of time around 1880 until 1914. During this time Africa found itself being split up and divided amongst several European countries. In essence Africa was like a fresh baked pie and everyone wanted a slice. Several factors were the cause of this major land grab being Nationalism, Imperialism and to say the least pure greed! The British were the more dominant entity in the scramble and their main interests in the beginning were to acquire and protect sea routes to India. As a result of the congress of Vienna they acquired the area of South Africa known as the cape colony. Soon after, Gold and Diamond were found north of this area and this steered their interests northward. This†¦show more content†¦Spain, Portugal, Belgium, and Italy were also involved in the scramble and in the end there was only one Large area that remained independent which was Ethiopia, and a few very small areas. But for the most part, Europe swa llowed up the continent. The beginning of this imperialism started with king Leopold of Belgium. For several years he had been secretly sending his representatives to the Congo region to sign treaties and purchase land from the local tribes, when it finally came to light what he was doing, he had already acquired 900,000 acres, later known as The Belgian Congo. This land was not for his country, but for his own personal use. Leopold cared nothing about the land or the native people, his goal was to exploit the land and people at all cost and that is exactly what he did. Millions of native Africans were forced into slave labor for Leopold’s needs and the land was stripped of all its natural recourses. The slaves were treated horribly and many millions were slaughtered or died from the horrific conditions forced upon them. Although the exact number is not known it is estimated to be in the tens of millions. King Leopold’s actions were appalling, even to his own people and as a result he was removed from the throne and the land was annexed by Belgium. Another result was several countries taking notice of Leo’s exploits, and the â€Å"Scramble for Africa† Began. Britain as I mentioned before wasShow MoreRelatedAnalyze Attitudes Toward and Evaluate the Motivations Behind the European Acquisition of African Colonies in the Period 1880 to 19141147 Words   |  5 PagesAfrican colonies in the period 1880 to 1914 During the late 1800’s, Europe was looking for a way to improve themselves as a whole. With growing population and a steady decline in available work, something new had to be done. Countries looked towards Africa to serve as new colonies for the Europeans in order to better their own countries. During the European acquisition of African colonies in the period 1880 to 1914 Europe’s attitude towards Africa was that Africa was the inferior race in comparisonRead MoreColonialism in Africa911 Words   |  4 PagesLadonya Gatling World Civilizations II Mr. Mitchell 10:00-10:50 (MWF) Colonialism in Africa Neither imperialism nor colonialism is a simple act of accumulation nor acquisition†¦ Out of imperialism, notions about culture were classified, reinforced, criticized or rejected† (BBC World Service). The nineteenth century saw massive changes in Africa. Some were driven by famine and disease (BBC World Service). Some changes were the result of the territorial ambitions of African rulers. As the centuryRead MoreImperialism Dbq Ap European History846 Words   |  4 Pagesfrom 1880 to 1914, European powers went after overseas empires in Africa. The governments and political leaders of the European powers believed that this colonization of the African empires was necessary to maintain their global influence. A second group of people supposed that African colonization was the result of the greedy Capitalists who \only cared for new resources and markets. The third group of people claimed it to be their job to enlighten and educate the uncivilized people of Africa. AlthoughRead MoreThe Scramble for Africa1154 Words   |  5 Pages What was the Scramble for Africa? The Scramble for Africa was a period of time where major European countries fought over and colonized land in Africa, stretching from South Africa to Egypt. The scramble for Africa began shortly after the slave trade, and ended at WW1, and is a strong representation of the ‘New Imperialism’. The first country to act was Belgium, who colonized Congo at 1885, but soon, other countries such as Portugal and Great Britain joined in in order to not miss out. FirstlyRead MoreThe Rwandan Genocide Essay959 Words   |  4 Pageswe must understand events prior. In the late 19th c. Europe experienced the, â€Å"African Fever† a phrase that can only describe the participation of Italian, French, British, German, and Belgian forces in the colonization of the African continent, between 1880-1914. Prior to the colonization, European countries outlawed the transportation or sale of slaves. The change in opinion was spearheaded by British organizations that felt slavery was fundamentally corrupt. Soon after, other European countriesRead MoreThe Scramble For African Colonization Of Africa1733 Words   |  7 Pages The Scramble for Africa had a massive impact on the lives of the citizens that lived there. In the 1870’s when Germany became the new leader in the European industry with chemicals and electrical products. This time was known as the second industrial revolution when transportation in the country came about it effected routes of trade became easily available thus making. The growth of European colonization of Africa which was unique because they started to colonized later than everyone else. ForRead MoreForces That Drove European Imperialism3495 Words   |  14 Pagesproliferation of nationalism drove many empires to seek colonial expansion as a form of prestige and supremacy. Lastly, the growing popularity of Social Darwinist doctrines in combination with European society’s approval of imperialism further promoted colonization. By seeking to expand their empires, the Great Powers were hoping to successfully follow the doctrines of neo-mercantilism by establishing a commanding and multi-faceted economy with overseas colonies, whose production would assist the home countryRead MoreEuropean Imperialism in Late 19th Century Africa1624 Words   |  7 Pages European Imperialism in Late 19th Century Africa: African Response and Effects Rafael Delatorre History 002B Professor Standish April 12, 2014 Between 1870 and 1914, European countries ceased about ninety percent of Africa. Native Africans faced political, military, and imperialism pressure from various European countries. After the end of the profitable slave trade in Africa, due to abolishing of slavery, Europeans explored forRead MoreScramble Africa And The Aftermath Essay2328 Words   |  10 PagesScrambling Africa and the Aftermath. One common phenomenon between many nations of the world is the colony. The United States, Canada, South Korea, Niger, India, Kenya, Australia, and the Republic of South Africa and more shared the pros and cons of colonial systems. They are all former colonies to the extent that India, Nigeria, South Africa, Australia, Canada, and New Zealand are members of the Commonwealth, they are former colonies of the United Kingdom and they all continue to concede the nominalRead MoreThe General Act of the Berlin Conference on West Africa2361 Words   |  10 PagesConference on West Africa (1884-1885) and the partition of Africa among the main European powers, considering its importance for the construction of Europe. The Conference of Berlin was the culmination of a process that began with the presence of European traders in the costal areas of West Africa. The relations between Europe and Africa developed during the age of slave trade and were transformed on the 19th century. The Conference i nitiated the process of formal colonization, which lasted until

Awareness of action discrepancy and action authorship in schizophrenia Free Essays

Introduction This study builds on previous research which has investigated the awareness of agency in schizophrenia patients with and without delusions of control. Individuals suffering from schizophrenia can show delusions which cause them to believe that their thoughts and actions are in control of external forces. In such individuals, previous research has shown that there is increased and abnormal activity in certain brain areas when compared to healthy subjects. We will write a custom essay sample on Awareness of action discrepancy and action authorship in schizophrenia or any similar topic only for you Order Now This fMRI study therefore investigates how these brain areas respond in two different tasks: 1) awareness of action discrepancy, and 2) awareness of action authorship. An experimental paradigm used by Farrer et al (2007) will be replicated, using a manual peg removal task. It is expected that in healthy individuals and schizophrenics without delusions of control will show normal activity in the specified brain areas in both of the studies. However, schizophrenics with delusions of control will show abnormally high activity in both studies, demonstrating an abnormality in brain function. Scientific Summary (max 200 words): Currently, there is a wealth of research investigating action authorship in healthy individuals and schizophrenics. These have shown that the rIPL, specifically the Ag, and the TPJ in healthy subjects and schizophrenics without delusions of control show increased BOLD signals to the experience of agency (self or other). However, it has been found that schizophrenics with delusions of control exhibit hyperactivity in these areas, and are more likely to misattribute an action to themselves or an external force. An experimental paradigm used by Farrer et al (2007) will be replicated, using a manual peg removal task – as research is somewhat ambiguous when it comes to brain activity relating to awareness of action discrepancy and awareness of action authorship, the two will be separated into two studies. It is expected that in both studies healthy subjects and schizophrenics without delusions of control will show normal brain function – rIPL activity to detecting a delay in the first study, and TPJ activity to the experience of agency uncertainty. However, the schizophrenics with delusions of control in study 1, will show hyperactivity of the rIPL and TPJ BOLD signals due to their perceived ambiguity of action agency, and study 2, will show similar results as they misattribute the action to external forces more so than the other subjects. 1. Background of the Project: Distinguishing oneself from others is something we all take for granted and give the self-other distinction and the source of our perceptions very little explicit thought in everyday life. It seems that the self-other distinction is automatic and operates via non-conscious cognitive processes and aids us in daily social interactions and situations (van den Bos Jeannerod, 2002). However, this ability is not clear-cut and definite in all individuals as it can be impaired to varying extents in a range of pathological and psychiatric disorders, i.e. schizophrenia. Schizophrenia is characterised by irregular beliefs, behaviours and experiences. Additionally, patients can typically exhibit symptoms which indicate abnormalities in self-attributing their own actions and thoughts: symptoms such as acoustic or verbal hallucinations and delusions of alien control can all relate to a sense of losing authorship/agency and giving the feeling of being controlled by external forces (Mellor, 1970; Spence et al, 1997). Schneider (1995) classed these as the first-rank symptoms and these were explained by the individuals losing their normal capability to monitor their self-generated intentions and actions (Feinberg, 1978; Frith, 1992). Before considering where these deficits lie in schizophrenia individuals, it is important to establish how the brain areas of healthy subjects function in response to agency tasks. Functional neuroimaging has allowed the neural correlates of motor control to be examined in great detail. In healthy subjects, awareness of action has been associated with the right inferior parietal lobule (rIPL) (Frith et al, 2000; Sirgu et al, 2004). Additionally, increased activity has been reported in specifically the right angular gyrus (Ag) of the rIPL when healthy subjects show an awareness that they are not in control of a certain motor action (Farrer Frith, 2002; Farrer et al, 2007). Further evidence has found that the Ag activity is correlated with the degree of discrepancy between the intended consequence of the action and the actual consequence of the action (Farrer et al, 2003). Other neuroimaging research has demonstrated that when healthy subjects do not feel authorship of an action or when they sensed a discrepancy between predicted and actual movements, activity in the temporo-parietal junction (TPJ) was increased (Leube et al, 2003; David et al, 2007; Farrer et a l, 2008; Spengler et al, 2009). This suggests that the TPJ has a very important role in whether we feel a sense of authorship of an action or if there is a discrepancy present. The first model which accounts for the mechanisms underlying the sense of agency is the Predictive Forward Model of motor control (Wolpert et al, 1995; Frith et al, 2000; Haggard, 2005). This model states that when an action is performed, predictions are made about the sensory movement consequences; this is based on the motor efference copy (von Holst Mittelstaedt, 1950). Next, such predictions are compared with real sensory feedback signals which arise as a consequence of the movement and these contribute to a sense of agency if no error signals are arise. If the comparison fails, and error signals occur, then the action is experienced as other-generated, or as action failure which can be corrected without conscious awareness (Slachesky et al, 2001). Now, considering schizophrenia individuals, delusions of control can comprise the belief that one’s actions are being influenced by an external force/agent (e.g. an alien, spirit or machine) (Mellor, 1970). When patients with such delusions are compared to schizophrenics without delusions of control they show impaired motor performance (Mlakar et al,, 1994; Spence et al, 1997). Recently, neuroimaging studies have allowed motor control and any dysfunctions in the neural correlates to be investigated. Firstly, research has shown that like healthy subjects, schizophrenic patients show increased activity in the rIPL when looking at action authorship; however, a different pattern is seen. The spontaneous resting activity of the rIPL is significantly higher than that of healthy subjects (Spence et al, 1997; Whalley et al, 2004; Jeannerod, 2009; Jardri et al, 2011) and additionally, this activity is poorly modulated by a discrepancy between predicted movement and actual movement cons equences (Farrer et al, 2004). This would suggest that there is a deficit in the parietal mechanism which could be responsible for the impaired sense of agency found in schizophrenia. In relation to the TPJ, there have been anatomo-functional changes which have been reported in schizophrenia (Torrey, 2007; Wible et al, 2009), and sulcal displacements and volume reductions in this region were evidenced in patients who reported delusions of control (Maruff et al, 2005; Plaze et al, 2011). Previous studies have not been able to disambiguate between brain activity related to awareness of action discrepancy and awareness of action authorship in schizophrenic patients. Therefore, the present study is going to use a slight modification of Farrer et al (2007) experimental paradigm in order to clarify which brain areas are functioning or functioning abnormally in response to the task. It is unclear specifically which process recruits which aforementioned brain regions and this can be achieved by using an experimental design which breaks down the processes into two separate methods. Two fMRI studies will be undertaken and manipulations will include: 1) the awareness of one’s own action being consistent with the predicted action and 2) the experience of being the agent or not being the agent of an action (i.e. authorship/agency). Study 1 will include delays in visual feedback of actions to manipulate the relationship between predicted and actual sensory consequences of the action. Therefore, brain activity can be monitored to see when subjects are aware vs. unaware of these discrepancies with no bearing on authorship. Uncertainty of authorship will be introduced in study 2 to allow the observation of brain activity in response to manipulations of action authorship. 2. Questions to be answered: Will a difference be found in rIPL and TPJ activity of healthy subjects, schizophrenics with delusions of control and schizophrenics without delusions of control in study 1? Will a difference be found in rIPL and TPJ activity of healthy subjects, schizophrenics with delusions of control and schizophrenics without delusions of control in study 2? Will there a difference in brain activity between studies 1 and 2? 3. Plan of Investigation: 3.1. Subjects In accordance with medical research guidelines, after complete description of the study, written informed consent will be obtained from each participant. 12 schizophrenics with delusions of control (6 male, 6 female), and 12 schizophrenics without delusions of control (6 male, 6 female) will be recruited from London teaching hospitals, satisfying the DSM IV-R criteria for schizophrenia. Additionally, 12 healthy subjects (6 male, 6 female) will be used as controls, matched on age, sex and IQ. Each participant will be identified as right hand dominant. A quantitative assessment of the schizophrenia symptoms will be performed using the PANSS (Kay et al, 1987). Criteria for the schizophrenic patients with delusions of control are that they score 4 or 5 on the â€Å"delusions of control† item in the Scale for Assessment of Positive Symptoms (Andreasen, 1984). The criteria for the schizophrenics without delusions of control will be that they have never experienced such delusions. Exclusion criteria will include any history of substance abuse or dependency, as well as any history of serious head injury or any other neurological or psychiatric disorders. 3.2. Stimuli Procedure As stated before, the experimental paradigm is very similar to Farrer et al (2007). Study 1: A manual peg task will be performed with visual feedback delayed by 0, 50, 100, 150, 200, 300 or 300 ms. A board with 33 holes and 25 pegs will be used. For each experimental block the placement of the pegs will be different to avoid any recall of peg positioning. An infrared camera will film the grid and this image will be sent to a delay unit and be delayed for the required time. The feedback image will then be linked to the LCD projector so that the subjects are able to see the delayed action feedback on the rear projection screen at the head of the bore. Therefore there are 7 conditions: 1 with no delay, and 6 with varying delays. A block design will be used with 8 blocks (20s each); the subjects will have to remove the pegs from the board for the 20s duration – this will then be followed by a rest condition with no action required or stimuli present. Each run involved the 7 conditions in a counterbalanced order. After each block finishes, each subject will be asked to state whether they perceived delays in the visual feedback of their movements: the right hand thumb down for â€Å"no† and thumb up for â€Å"yes†. Study 2: The procedure and stimuli will be the same as study 1. However, the subjects will be required to perform index and middle finger alternating actions without pause whilst watching the feedback screen. The delays used will be 800 and 1000ms. Each run will consist of 120s of alternating finger movement, and 30s rest and will be repeated 5 times. The subjects will be told that they can either see their own or another’s movements after the delay, and this would occur randomly. However, in fact subjects will only be able to see their own movements delayed, causing them to switch from self to other. They also will be required to assert whether they think they see themselves or another individual carrying out the action. They will be required to press one of two buttons to show this. To prevent any other source of recognisable information that could give away the authorship of the movement, subjects will be required to wear a snug fitting glove to prevent any recognition cues . 3.3. Image Acquisition and Analysis Studies 1 and 2 used the same functional imaging acquisition procedure. A 1.5-Tesla MRI scanner with a SENSE head coil will be used. For each run an ultrafast echo planar gradient echo imaging (EPI) sequence sensitive to blood oxygenation level-dependent (BOLD) contrast will be used to obtain 25 slices per time repetition, (4.5mm thickness, 1mm gap, in plane resolution, 3.125 x 3.125mm). TR = 2500ms, TE = 35ms. A co-planar, T1-weighted, axial fast spin echo sequence will be used to acquire 25 slices (4.5mm slice thickness with 1mm gap), TE = Min full, TR = 650ms, ET = 2, field of view = 24cm. A whole brain T1-weighted structural image will also be acquired (0.94?0.94?1.2mm) (Farrer et al, 2007). A head restraint will also be used to reduce any head movement during the scan in order to reduce any motion artefact. 4. Details of Data Analysis: Both studies 1 and 2 will perform image analyses and statistical analyses using the SPM99 (http://fil.ion.ucl.ac.uk/spm/software/spm99). Functional scans will be realigned, spatially normalised and smoothed using a Gaussian kernel to remove any movement artefacts and to place the data from each subject into a common anatomical frame. The statistical analysis is similar to the analysis carried out by (Farrer et al, 2007). Study 1: Two statistical analyses of the fMRI data will be performed. Firstly, movement-related activity, a simple contrast between the experimental blocks and the rest blocks. Secondly, delay-detection activity, the subjects’ responses in the detection of the delay will allow the assessment of between trials where subjects did or did not perceived the delay (Farrer et al, 2007). Study 2: Two statistical comparisons will be performed. Firstly, movement-related activity, the experimental blocks across all conditions for each subject will be grouped and the main effect of task will be created. Secondly, perturbed agency, the subjects’ response to the visual feedback will allow differentiation between trials where the subject experienced self or other action authorship. (Farrer et al, 2007). For both studies, one-tailed t-tests will be used for each of the contrast images. The set of t-values obtained will constitute a statistical parametric map which will show significant areas of BOLD signals. 5. Expected Outcomes: The Expected fMRI Results: Study 1: Consistent with prior research, it is expected that the healthy subjects will show significant activation in the in the rIPL, specifically the Ag, when detecting a discrepancy (detection of delay) (Frith et al, 2000; Sirgu et al, 2004; Farrer Frith, 2002; Farrer et al, 2007). No TPJ activity is expected in the healthy subjects as study 1 is not meant to bring about the experience of agency uncertainty; this will be supported by previous research which shows the TPJ to have a role in determining if an action is not ours (Leube et al, 2003; David et al, 2007; Farrer et al, 2008; Spengler et al, 2009). Schizophrenics without delusions of control are predicted to show very similar brain activation to the healthy subjects; this can be justified because they have had no prior experience of delusions of control and shouldn’t have any problems with determining action authorship (Spence et al, 1997) – however, this is not entirely certain, and only a prediction. As for the schizophrenics with delusions of control, it is expected that brain activity will be abnormal; the delay detected by the patient could elicit hyperactivation in the rIPL, specifically the Ag, and the TPJ and give rise to misattribution of agency (Spence et al, 1997; Whalley et al, 2004; Jeannerod, 2009; Jardri et al, 2011). Unlike the healthy controls and schizophrenics without delusions of controls, it is predicted that they will be unable to attribute the movement to themselves after the delay. Study 2: It is expected that because of the ambiguity of the movement in terms of agency, healthy subjects and schizophrenics without delusions of control will show increased activity in the rIPL, but also in the TPJ due to the uncertainty of agency (Frith et al, 2000; Sirgu et al, 2004; Farrer Frith, 2002; Farrer et al, 2007; Leube et al, 2003; David et al, 2007; Farrer et al, 2008; Spengler et al, 2009). After being told that the action is ambiguous (i.e. self or other) it is predicted that the schizophrenics with delusions of control – similar to study 1 – will be more likely to misattribute the movement to another agent with a greater perturbation of their sense of agency compared to the other subjects. Additionally, the activity in the rIPL and TPJ is expected to show hyperactivation in comparison to the other subjects. (Spence et al, 1997; Whalley et al, 2004; Jeannerod, 2009; Jardri et al, 2011). Finally, it is expected that there will be a greater overlap between brain areas active in both studies for the schizophrenics with delusions of control compared to the other subjects. 6. Details of any difficulties that can be foreseen: Although the subjects will be paid for their participation in the study, locating both schizophrenics with and without delusions of control may prove to difficult as they must be situated near the fMRI site as it is very unlikely that they will wish to travel long distances due to time and other issues. The criteria provided will narrow down the potential sample further. When using fMRI, it is important to acknowledge that the BOLD signals are considered to be an indirect measure of brain activity, therefore potentially, all brain responses may not be recorded for each of the stimuli. However, fMRI is viewed as one of the most effective ways to investigate brain activity without invasive procedure in this paradigm. It will be made certain that all precautions are met, and imaging acquisition and analysis are meticulously carried out. Due to the nature of schizophrenia and the wide variety of symptoms shown, it is possible that during the scanning process, certain subjects might experience symptoms that are debilitating to the scanning process which are out of the control of the experimenter. Medical staff will be on standby in case any violent/aggressive symptoms occur. There is a small chance of such an incident happening, but careful preparation can minimise the risk. 7. Future purpose and Theoretical Implications: If the results are as expected, this will have significant implications for several research areas. Firstly, it will add to the abundance of literature on the involvement of the rIPL and TPJ in response to action discrepancy and authorship in healthy individuals (e.g. (Frith et al, 2000; Sirgu et al, 2004; Farrer Frith, 2002; Farrer et al, 2007; Leube et al, 2003; David et al, 2007; Farrer et al, 2008; Spengler et al, 2009). Furthermore, it will demonstrate that symptoms vary massively across schizophrenia patients – there are deficits in the functioning of neural correlates (i.e. the rIPL and TPJ) between those with and without delusions of control, and will add to the relevant literature (e.g. (Spence et al, 1997; Whalley et al, 2004; Jeannerod, 2009; Jardri et al, 2011). Future research could delve into the severity of the symptoms of both the schizophrenics with and without delusions of control, and investigate whether it has an effect on subsequent brain activity. If a significant correlation is found it could be used as a â€Å"state-marker† of schizophrenia. As Jardri et al (2011) suggested such an increase in activity of the rIPL and TPJ in those with delusions could demonstrate a neuro-physiological signature in those suffering from the disease. Additionally, it gives further evidence that the deficient parietal mechanism is responsible for the impaired sense of agency demonstrated in schizophrenics with delusions of control. Therefore, as they have problems linking their intentions to their actions, it suggests that for future research the disconnection should not be looked for at the sensorimotor level, but rather, like this experiment, it should be looked for within the cortical network which is known to be responsible for the representations of motor function. References: David, N., Cohen, M., Newen, A., Bewernick, B., Shah, N., Fink, G., Vogeley, K. (2007). The extrastriate coretex distinguishes between the consequences of one’s own and others’ behaviour. Neuroimage, 26, 1004-1014. Farrer, C., Frith, C. (2002). Experiencing oneself vs another person as being the cause of an action: the neural correlates of the experience of agency.Neuroimage, 15, 596-603. Farrer, C., Franck, N., Georgieff, N., Frith,C., Decety, J., Jeannerod, M. (2003). Modulating the sense of agency: a PET study. Neuroimage, 18, 324-333. Farrer, C., Franck, N., Georgieff, N., Frith, C., Decety., d’Amato, T., Jeannerod, M. (2004). Neural correlates of action attribution in schizophrenia. Psychiatry Res, 131, 31-44. Farrer, C., Frey, S., van Horn, J., Tunik, E., Turk, D., Inati, S., Grafton, S. (2007). The angular gyrus computes action awareness representations. Cereb Cortex, 18, 254-261. Feinberg, I. (1978). Efference copy and corollary discharge. Implications for thinking and its disorders. Schizophr Bull, 4, 636-640. Frith, C. (1992). The cognitive neuropsychology of schizophrenia. Lawrence Erlbaum Assocaites, Hove. Frith, C., Blakemore, S., Wolpert, D. (2000). Abnormalities in the awareness and control of action. The Royal Society, 355, 1771-1788. Haggard, P. (2005). Conscious intention and motor cognition. Trends Cogn Sci. 9, 290-295. Jardri, R., Pins, D., Lafarge, G., Very, E., Ameller, A., Delmaire, C., Thomas, P. (2011). Increased overlap between the brain areas involved in self-other distinction in schizophrenia. Plos One, 6, 3. Jeannerod, M. (2009). The sense of agency and its disturbances in schizophrenia: a reappraisal. Exp Brain Res, 192, 527-532. Kay, S., Fiszbein, A., Opler, L. (1987). The positive and negative syndrome scale (PANSS) for schizophrenia. Schizophr Bull, 13, 261-276. Leube, D., Knoblich, G., Erb, M., Grodd, W., Bartels, M., Kircher, T. (2003). The neural correlates of perceiving one’s own movements. Neuroimage, 20, 2084-2090. Maruff, P., Wood, S., Velakoulis, D., Smith, D., Soulsby, B., et al. (2005). Reduced volume of parietal and frontal association areas in patients with schizophrenia characterised by passivity delusions. Psychol Med, 35, 783-789. Mellor, C. (1970). First rank symptoms of schizophrenia. Br J Psychiatry, 117, 15-23. Mlakar, J., Jensterle, J., Frith, C. (1994). Central monitoring deficiency and schizophrenic symptoms. Psychol Med, 24, 557-564. Plaze, M., Paillere-Martinot, M., Penttila, J., Januel, D., de Beaurepaire, R. Et al. (2011). Where do auditory hallucinations comes fromA brain morphometry study of schizophrenia patients with inner or outer space hallucinations. Schizophr Bull, 37, 212-221. Sirgui, A., Daprati, E., Ciancia, S., Giraux, P., Nighohhossian, N., Posada, A., Haggard, P. (2004). Altered awareness of voluntary action after damange to the parietal cortex. Nat Neurosci, 7, 80-84. Slachevsky, A., Pillon, B., Fourneret, P., Pradat-Diehl, P., Jeannerod, M., Dubois, B. (2001). Preserved adjustment but impaired awareness in sensory-motor conflict following prefrontal lesions. J Cogn Neurosci, 13, 332-340. Spence, S., Brooks, D., Hirsch, S., Liddle, P., Meehan, J., Grasby, P. (1997). A PET study of voluntary movement in schizophrenic patients experiencing passivity phenomena (delusions of alien control). Brain, 120, 1997-2011. Spengler, S., Yves von Cramon, D., Brass, M. (2009). Was it me or was it youHow the sense of agency originates from ideomotor learning revealed by fMRI. Neuroimage, 46, 290-298. Torrey, E. (2007). Schizophrenia and the inferior parietal lobule. Schizophr Res, 97, 215-225. Van den Bos, E., Jeannerod, M. (2002). Sense of body and sense of action both contribute to self-recognition. Cognition, 85, 177-187. Von Holst, E., Mittelstaedt, G. (1950). Das reafferenzprinzip. Naturwissenschaften, 37, 464-476. Whalley, H., Simonotto, E., Flett, S., Marshall, I., Ebmeier, K., Owens, D., Goddard, N., Johnstone, E., Lawrie, S. (2004). fMRI correlates of state and trait effect in subjects at genetically enhances risk of schizophrenia. Brain, 127, 478-490. Wible, C., Preus, A., Hashimoto, R. (2009). A cognitive neuroscience view of schizophrenic symptoms: abnormal activation of a system for scoail perception and communication. Brain Imaging Behav, 3, 85-110. Wolpert, D., Ghahramani, Z., Jordan, M. (1995). An internal model for sensorimotor integration. Science, 269, 1880-1882. How to cite Awareness of action discrepancy and action authorship in schizophrenia, Essay examples

Marvin Hugley Jr. (3303 words) Essay Example For Students

Marvin Hugley Jr. (3303 words) Essay Marvin Hugley Jr. Eric NelsonCinema 1075/8/17LA Confidential and Film NoirOne of the most influential film movements in the 1940s was a genre that is known today as film noir. Film noir was a recognizable style of filmmaking, which was created in response to the rising cost of typical Hollywood movies (Buss 67). Film noir movies were often low budget films; they used on location shoots, small casts, and black and white film. The use of black and white film stock not only lowered production costs, but also displayed a out of place disposition that the conventions of film noir played upon. It is these conventions: themes, characters, lighting, sound, and composition, which are seen in the movie LA Confidential (Curtis Hanson, 1997). This paper discusses the techniques used in LA Confidential that link the movie with the typical cinematic conventions of the film noir style. Film noir often tackled subjects that dealt with common underlying themes: corruption, deceit, mystery, etc (Sobchack, 271). One of the most well-known and acclaimed pioneers in film noir is the movie The Maltese Falcon (John Huston, 1941). This film was based on a private investigator, Sam Spade, hired to investigate a case. The Maltese Falcon is now viewed as the typical film noir style movie because it contains traits and qualities of filmmaking that were adapted by film noir filmmakers. Film noir started during the mid 1940s and has been a popular film style ever since, yielding such contemporary movies like The Usual Suspects (Bryan Singer, 1995), Pulp Fiction (Quentin Tarantino, 1994), and Lock, Stock and Two Smoking Barrels (Guy Ritchie, 1998). These films have proved that film noir is not a method dedicated to past decades, but rather an innovative style of film that influences movies today. LA Confidential, like other contemporary film noirs utilize many stylistic qualities that the earlier film noir movies grasped. Often film noir movies were based upon corruption, usually in an urban type setting. Location in these movies would often consist of nighttime scenes in a busy city. Los Angles, the location of LA Confidential, is a typical setting for film noir movies due to its newer west coast image and the absence of rural traditions. The city was chosen largely because of its informality. People living in a city do not interact with each other as people of a small town might. Film noir played upon the idea of loneliness and solitude; two traits that are easily found in a big city (Monaco 246). Nighttime scenes were chosen because of the mystery that comes with darkness. Night projects a feeling to the viewer that he or she would not absorb in the daytime, very much the same way horror movies play themselves upon the night. Just like the basis of the big city, film noir acts upon the conventions of mystery and suspense: it is easier for the filmmaker to play with the viewers emotions if he or she is placed in a setting of uneasiness. The nighttime images in LA Confidential portray that anxiety and allow the mystery of the plot to expand. This use of nighttime and darker images lends the movie to take advantage of the stylistic low-key lighting. The movie begins with the narration of Sid Hudgens, editor for Hush Hush magazine, a sleazy tabloid concerned with getting a news story no matter what the consequences are. Typical of film noir, the story is adapted from a tabloid or pulp fiction novel. Sid Hudgens describes a town of beauty, filled with beaches, people, and economic potential. He tells how anyone can achieve the American dream in Los Angeles and how it truly is the greatest place to live. Sids voice suddenly turns sour as he reveals the truth about Los Angeles: an image is sold to the gullible; a pleasant image sent throughout the media. Unfortunately, its all a lie. The story continues with the addition of Edmund Exley to the Los Angeles Police Department. Exley is a skilled detective with all the book smarts a cop could possess. Usually, the protagonist in film noir would have an inner conflict between what he feels is right, and what is expected of him. In the movie, Exley must decide if giving up his chance for promotion is reason enough to fight for what he believes is right. The catch is that he immediately clashes with the rest of the force. It turns out that behind the honorable image of the LAPD, the force is a horribly corrupt authority revolving around money, power, and fame. Film noir commonly hid themes of corruption, deceit, and crookedness behind an idea of the American dream (Schatz 113). This idea is boldly seen in the movie American Beauty (Sam Mendes, 1999). One of the arguments in the movie suggests that behind every seemingly normal family is a household of embarrassment. Edmunds co-workers, Bud White, Jack Vincennes, and Dudley Smith are more interested in advancement than hones ty. When a case is solved in Los Angeles, there is a big to-do about the man behind the case. This publicity allows an officer to advance in the department, but also blurs the truth about the actual case findings. Edmund comes to a point in the movie where he decides to testify against his peers, throwing away any chance he has for betterment, but at the same time preserving his integrity. This was common in film noir: the idea that sacrifices must be made for absolute justice. Edmund believes that a cop should do everything by the book and honesty, where Bud White believes that as long as justice is served, justice is served. In the movie, Bud decides to shoot a suspect, and manipulate the scene as though it appears that the suspect shot at Bud first. Bud did this to prevent the suspect from getting off on some loophole in the justice system. As it turns out, the suspect was innocent of the crime. This is another film noir convention: the first suspect is usually not the one that t he protagonist is after. In addition, the LAPD distorts the truth not only in favor of serving justice but to make some extra money as well. Sid Hudgens pays cops like Jack Vincennes to create stories for Hush Hush magazine. Edmund Exley is the typical good cop. He was the son of a cop who unfortunately had the same reputation as the other cops; the lawless reputation that led to the police forces downfall. Edmund, we quickly see, is not a team player only because the team will not let him play. He quickly achieves respect from Dudley Smith, the captain; however, is never fully liked by him because he constantly gives up opportunities to advance. Edmund, unlike his co-worker and co-protagonist Bud White, believes that a cop is a respectable job, unneeded of extra attention: a well-done job is all the reward anyone could ever want. This idea that the hero often avoids the fame of success because is compromises his moral code is typical of film noir. It is also the idea that Bud White is taught to grasp throughout the movie. Bud White is the exact opposite of Exley: he believes that the right thing to do is to get justice before asking questions. Buds character is written so that he clashes with Exley, often times a quality in film noir and also cop films. Usually there embodies a duo whose other half is a total opposite. Using these two distinct personalities, film noir allows the two main characters to build upon one another, helping in the development of the story. It also allows each of the characters to understand their own particular flaws; that is they learn from the mistakes of the other one. Bud also interacts with Lynn Bracken, the femme fatale, and the two build upon each other as well. We can immediately see the corruption in the movie through a seemingly cut and dry case, when it is linked to a larger conspiracy. Like the Maltese Falcon, the movie involves a mysterious case with several twists throughout. Those twists are often established with an e ssential character known as the femme fatale. In The Maltese Falcon, as well as many other film noir movies, the femme fatale plays an important role in creating a character that builds in development throughout the movie. Lynn Bracken, a prostitute cut to look like Veronica Lake, plays the part of the femme fatale who aids in the development of Bud White. We see in the movie that Miss Bracken is a small town girl with real hopes, dreams, and ambitions. In some film noirs we are led to believe that the femme fatale is the destructive force which leads to the protagonists downfall (Maxfield). In LA Confidential, Curtis Hanson uses the femme fatal as an aid to help the protagonist mend his errors. This is the role Lynn plays aside Bud White, a cop with a weak spot for women, and a vengeance for those who beat them. In the LA Confidential screenplay, Brian Helgeland and Curtis Hanson do a remarkably well job of developing Miss Bracken into an unforgettable femme fatale. We are first in troduced to her as a person and not an object, despite the fact that her job makes her look like an object rather than a person. We are to immediately react to her personality, finding something in her that we understand with. She is an innocent person being driven by a more powerful force. In most film noir movies, the femme fatale is a stereotype. Lynn Bracken however, is not a stereotype in the way that most other film noir movies make the femme fatale: that is that the femme fatale uses her appeal to distract the protagonist. Nonetheless, we still see her as a stereotype: the hooker with the heart of gold. Film noir movies like to project an image that tends to hide or obstruct reality. As mentioned before, the image of an honorable police force mocks the actual corruption. It is then ironic, that the police force in LA Confidential is affiliated with the television show Badge of Honor. Hanson uses the show to project an image into our subconscious. In the television show, the m edias interpretation of the Los Angeles Police Department is emphasized. Equally ironic, the show Badge of Honor is just as corrupt as the police department is; cast members are blackmailed in favor of obtaining stories for Hush Hush magazine. Hanson also uses cinematic and film techniques to help project the typical conventions of film noir. Some of these techniques are used very much in the same way older style film noir movies were done in, while other techniques were created to adapt to the modern expectations of the viewer. In addition, some techniques used mostly because of modern Hollywood conventions are actually used to help the film noir develop. Looking at the film stock used in LA Confidential compared to film stocks used in other film noir movies, both film stocks display a concept that enhances the film noir style. The Maltese Falcon was filmed in a high speed, grainy, black and white film stock. Black and white film was originally used because it was cheaper to make a nd develop than color. Black and white also created a documentary feel to the movie, and projected a sense of realism. Quickly, the use of black and white added to the mood of film noir, making it a common practice. The graininess of the film stock helped in distorting the film into an unbalanced media. Using black and white film turned this genre into a no longer clean cut, pleasing film style. It was intended to keep the viewers on the edge of their seats, and the grainy film stock help in doing just that. However, the film audiences over the years have come to trust in color film stock, as it shortens the separation from the imaginary and the real. Hanson however, uses the color film to his advantage, creating a seedy mood. In Body Heat (Lawrence Kasdan, 1981) for example, Kasdan uses the color to his advantage much like Hanson does in LA Confidential. Both use color to heighten the impact of certain items on the viewer. In the night owl scene, Hanson takes advantage of the psych ological effects that blood portrays in the movie. With black and white film, blood looks like chocolate syrup, which does very little in grabbing the audience for commiseration. If we can see the deep redness of the blood, the killing seem more real, the case more important, and the need to discover the truth more significant. Another imperative aspect of filmmaking is the idea of lighting. Now it is important to know that in film noir the concept is lighting, not illuminating. Where illuminating is used to generate enough light to visually see the subjects, lighting provides the right amount of light to create a mood. It is also important to know that the typical way to light a scene is to use a three point lighting system. This method consists of three lights, each having their own purpose on lighting the scene. The key light is used to generate the majority of the light, or to illuminate the scene. However, if a subject is shot with one light, severe shadows are attached to the subject. To drown those shadows out, a fill light is used. This fill light is placed at the opposite corner, almost like a second corner of a triangle. The harsh shadows are then washed out, providing an even light at the subject. Then a third light, the back light, is placed behind the subject and off to the side to illuminate the back of the subject. This separates the subject from the background, creating a sense of depth in the two-dimensional screen space. LA Confidential uses unconventional lighting to portray disturbing images. Instead of three lights, only one or two lights are used. Or sometimes the low-key lighting is achieved by turning down the fill light, creeping up the shadows. This technique is used to break the film free from the conventions of the classical Hollywood style, which is what film noir did in the 1940s. For example, there are dimly or low-key shots of the villains to portray a negative image of that character. Likewise, a brightly-lit hero can project t he protagonist as more of a likeable character. In addition, by using no back light, the subject might tend to be lost into the background, adding to the sense of disorientation that is carried throughout the film. Other movies have made use of stylistic lighting as well. In The Godfather (Francis Ford Coppola, 1972), Coppola uses a single light above Marlon Brandos face to create a seriously disturbing image. With the light positioned directly above his face, pointed down, Brandos eye sockets are completely darkened. We can only see certain parts of his face, and what we do see is not very complimentary. Of course, the idea was not to portray Brando as a bright, happy person, but a dark, seedy villain instead. Composition also helps in the conventions of film noir as seen in LA Confidential. Canting the shot, or using a Dutch angle, tilts the scene to one side, creating another typical uneasy event. Usually, canting a shot symbolizes that something is about to or has already gone w rong. The Dutch angles also compliment the skewed lines that are formed in the mise-en-scene. Film noir tended to use the mise-en-scene to compliment what was going on in the story at the time. Film noir took these conventions from German expressionism, which was developed in order to portray an eerie reality (Schatz, 116). Hanson uses these type of shots during the shoot-out scenes between the police force and the enemy. Another, and probably most impressive use of canting is when the police force riots against the prisoners. We are shown overhead with an abnormal angle, with the camera jerking us around, creating as sense of confusion. Various shots are often used to send signals to the viewer in the film. Edmund Exley is often times shot from below. This creates an angle in which Edmunds physique is distorted, making him look more powerful and more of a hero. In Citizen Kane (Orson Welles, 1941), many shots are used from underneath the character, to make them appear more powerful and more heroic than a normal front view shot would have appeared (Schatz, 121). Likewise, shooting a subject from above creates a downward angle on the screen. This degrades the character, creating a shallow and horrible person. In LA Confidential, Hanson uses these angles for the criminals. A soundtrack is also imperative in portraying a theme in film noir. To start out, the musical score in a film reflects on the characters and the growth taking place at the time. In LA Confidential, when Edmund is dejected by hi colleagues, the soundtrack is a somber, almost slow type of music. When Bud White reveals himself to Lynn Bracken, the music is soft, adding to the sentimentality of the scene. When both Edmund and Bud solve the case at the end of the movie, the music is more uplifting. However, at no point in the movie does the music become too upbeat: even when the music is uplifting, it still has traits of depression, a quality in film noir music. In addition to the soundtrack, sound is used to help the film along. In a typical street scene, we might hear the sound of other people talking, cars passing by, or a radio playing. In LA Confidential, the absence of sound as well as the focus of sound is used. Instead of walking down a busy street with people talking, Edmund is walking down a dark, vacant street. We can also hear nothing but his footsteps, adding to the feeling of loneliness in the city that film noir tends to portray. Simple sounds such as gun shots, pencils tapping against a desk, or doors closing are heightened so that we are made more aware of them. Hanson wants us to feel the loudness of the gunshot, heightening its impact upon the target. In closing, LA Confidential makes use of cinematic and story-line techniques to link the movie with the conventions of typical film noir movies. Though LA Confidential, like many other contemporary film noir movies adapt certain practices to a modern audience, the filmmakers find ways to make those adaptations necessary in developing the film noir style. A basic message is portrayed by both generations of film noir: corruption is hidden behind a facade of honorable images. It is safe to say then, whether film noir comes in the form of LA Confidential, Pulp Fiction, Chinatown, or ever The Maltese Falcon, film noir is a genre accepted and loved by all generations, keeping it a method of filmmaking that will never fade. Loyalty To Family In The Short Story barn Burning EssayWork Cited Buss, Robin. French Film Noir. New York: Marion Boyans, 1988.IMDb.com, n.d. Web. 25 Apr. 2017Maxfield, James. The Fatal Woman: Source of Male Anxiety in American Film Noir, 1941-1991. London: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1996. Monaco, James. How to Read a Film. New York: Oxford University Press, 1981. Schatz, Thomas. Hollywood Genres: Formulas, Filmmaking and the Studio System. New York, New York: Random House, 1981. Sobchack, Thomas and Vivian C. Sobchack. An Introduction to Film. Boston: Scott, Foresman and Company, 1987.